Government, business and making China an educational powerhouse since the 1980s

February 5, 2026, Paper: "This article examines how China successfully built a highly competent K-12 education system since the 1980s achieving high literacy rates, broad basic education, and gender equality. It argues that this success was driven by a strategy of blending public and private interests, known as the ‘walking on two legs’ approach, within an examination-oriented system. K-12 education was delivered through a combination of Central and local governments, state-owned enterprises, and the private sector with the rise of private tutoring, or ‘shadow education’. It goes on to explore why the Chinese government launched a major policy reversal after 2016 designed to transform what appeared a successful system. The article argues that this was in response to systemic dysfunctions and regional disparities in access to more prestigious schools and private training programs, as well as reflecting broader policy shifts towards greater centralisation."